OS Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

OS - Research Paper Example Microsoft Windows or simply Windows is an operating system family of personal computer operating systems that is developed by Microsoft to make use of the computer through graphical user interface (GUI). Additionally, the Windows operating systems have been developed from the MS-DOS (Microsoft Disk operating system), which is a non-graphical command line operating system developed for IBM compatible computers and was initially released by Microsoft in August 1981 and its final version MS-DOS 6.22 was released in 1994. However, currently the MS-DOS operating system is not widely utilized, but its command shell can be used through Microsoft Windows (Computer Hope; Microsoft Corporation). Additionally, this operating system was based on the text mode and used command-line to perform calculations. Thus, it was not a user-friendly operating system. The initial version of Windows operating system, which is also acknowledged as the initial Windows Graphic Environment 1.0 was introduced on 1 0 November 1983, however simply out of the marketplace in November 1985 designed to help and manage the computer requirements to display a picture. The initial Windows 1.0 is a software addition to 16-bit (that was not an OS) that executed on MS-DOS (as well as a number of alternatives of MS-DOS), thus, the DOS operating system was necessary to run this operating system. In addition, after this version the Windows Version 2.x and 3.x were released, which were of the similar type. A number of the newest versions of Windows (however these new versions start from the version 4.0 and Windows NT 3.1) were autonomous OS that no longer reliant upon the operating system MS-DOS (Microsoft Corporation). Beginning from DOS Shell for Microsoft’s DOS 6 Microsoft required struggling beside the best-selling Apple Macintosh that utilized a GUI, Microsoft produced Windows 1.0. However, the name â€Å"Windows† was suggested by the Microsoft

Prison reform in Ghana Thesis Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Prison reform in Ghana - Thesis Example Prisons are housed in old colonial forts. New structures are being built, but not fast enough. Since most of the population is economically poor many end up committing a crime. The poor are at the mercy of the gang members. The prisons are filled with violence, drugs, and corruption. The Ghana Prison Service is in charge of overseeing the prisons. While changes are being made, they are woefully inadequate. The problem becomes that the Ghana people are patterning a prison system after the British. This would be fine if the Ghana government had the resources of the British government. Since the country is one of the poorest in the world, their prison system cannot achieve the same goals as one of the richest countries in the world. The Ghana Prison System needs to create a correctional program based on their resources, culture, and needs. While this seems unlikely I can only hope for a better prison system in the future. I wish that all humans can be treated fairly, even those in West Africa. Ghana deserves to have their culture preserved in every aspect of their life, including their prison

English: The Official Language?

English: The Official Language? For better or for worse, like it or not, English is in effect the official language of the planet. It is the most commonly used language of international commerce, politics, science, diplomacy, and the most commonly used language on the Internet. It is a lingua franca, or vehicular language, i.e. a language spoken and utilized outside of the country or countries of its origin, as opposed to a vernacular language, i.e. a language spoken within and amongst native speakers in the country of origin. English, like other lingua franca of the past, is often used as a second language to effect common communication for a specific purpose (such as diplomacy) between people for whom the lingua franca is not their first language. For example, French was once the lingua franca of diplomacy up until around World War I, only to be supplanted by English; scientists themselves declared English to be their lingua franca in a 1989 article in The Scientist magazine bluntly entitled The English Language: The Lingua Franca Of International Science. One may view the domination and global use of English as linguistic and cultural imperialism, and indeed we shall explore this notion further, but the simple fact is that the situation is unlikely to change any time soon. It is everywhere. Some 380 million people speak it as their first language and perhaps two-thirds as many again as their second. A billion are learning it, about a third of the worlds population are in some sense exposed to it and by 2050, it is predicted, half the world will be more or less proficient in it. (The Economist, 2001). It is thus in the best interest of citizens and governments of any nations that wish to participate on the global stage economically, politically, scientifically, etc., to embark upon official programs to ensure that people have the opportunity to learn English; in fact, it may be argued that the teaching of English should be mandatory in such nations. While there are cultural drawbacks to the institutionalized teaching of English in non-ENL countries, the benefits seem to outweigh the drawbacks, and we shall explore both as well. To understand the merits of education in English, as well as its drawbacks and the practical requirements therein, we must first understand something of the merits of the English language itself, the historical circumstances and cultures that spawned it, and why it continues to be durable and vital as a universal language. The global influence and power of the British Empire, and then subsequently the United States as the British Empires scope gradually eroded, is primarily responsible for the primacy of English as a de facto official international language. Latin, once the lingua franca for most of Europe, was gradually supplanted in the 17th and 18th century as global exploration and colonization; for a time, scholars and clerics who regularly traveled across the boundaries of national languages continued to use Latin and their lingua franca. But as knowledge of Latin declined and the rise of merchant and professional classes produced travelers unschooled in Latin,people sought alternative means of international communications. (Graddol,2000, p. 6) The victory of the Allies in World War II cannot be underestimated in terms of representing a huge step in cementing the destiny of English as the language eventually destined to be the universal language of the globe. The only two potential rivals at the time were French, mostly due to historical inertia, and German, mostly due to the astonishing rise to military and economic power of Nazi Germany in the 1920s and 1930s. Had the U.S. not lent its economic and military might to defeat the Germans and the Japanese, English might be a quaint relic of the planets short-lived experiment in democracy. Had Hitler won World War II and had the USA been reduced to a confederation banana republics, we would probably today use German as a universal vehicular language, and Japanese electronic firms would advertise their products in Hong Kong airport duty-free shops in German. (Eco, 1995, p. 331) Unlike almost every other major nation that fought in World War II, the United States emerged with its economy not only intact, but also thriving. It was therefore no surprise that the United States took the lead in forming and administering institutions to aid the reconstruction and reintegration of Europe, Japan, and many other regions of the world. In short order, English-speaking nations were also exporting their culture, not simply their goods and goodwill. The ongoing hegemony that the United States and Britain enjoy in terms of cultural communications film, television, books, music, etc., helps perpetuate the influence and staying power of English as an official language. Even such cultural communications that are translated into the native languages of individual countries are not immune to the Englishness of the communications, i.e., the distinctly American and/or British cultural elements that inform the language of the communications and therefore necessarily survive any competent translation and are inculcated into the minds of the listener/viewer/reader. In ways too intricate, too diverse for socio-linguistics to formulate precisely, English and American-English seem to embody for men and women throughout the world -and particularly for the young the feel of hope, of material advance, of scientific and empirical procedures. The entire world-image of mass consumption, of international exchange, of the popular arts, of generational conflict, of technocracy, is permeated by American-English and English citations and speech habits. (Steiner, 1975, p. 469) Other than the cultural, military, and political hegemony of the British Empire and of the United States, what might account for the staying power of English as a lingua franca? From a linguistic perspective, English is hardly the most sensible choice for a quasi-official global language. English, simply put, is not the most efficient and consistent language. English is an irregular and fractured language comprised of influences from Latin and Celtic, and later Scandinavian and Norman French tongues. Its syntax, construction, verb conjugation,spelling, and other grammatical constructions, etc., are riddled with maddening inconsistencies that at times befuddle even native speakers, to say nothing ofthose who struggle for years to master it as a second language. English lacks the simplicity and consistency of the Romance languages to the extent that it varies from its Latin and French influences, though it is certainly easier to learn and utilize than some Asian tongues. However, these same elements that make English a flawed language are also believed by many linguists to be strengths that assist in the durability and adaptability of English; it has historically adapted to and incorporated language influences with ease that it has encountered from around the globe. English has always been an evolving language and language contact has been an important driver of change Some analysts see this hybridity and permeability of English as defining features, allowing it to expand quickly into new domains and explaining in part its success as a world language. (Graddol, 2000, p. 6) As English owes its existence to the fact that it absorbs, not rejects new linguistic and cultural influences, its inherently hybridized nature makes it all the easier for English to assimilate characteristics of other cultures and languages, instead of reject them or demand they conform to some sort of rigid structure. As the rules of English are a bit fast and loose, English is well-suited to evolve on the fly. There are a variety of challenges facing both those who wish to learn English as a second language and those who wish to teach it. Some of these challenges are cultural, some are practical, but the utilization of English by non-native speakers in non-ENL nations is never as simple a matter as it might seem. Culturally speaking, some aspiring English speakers may feel pressure from the more traditional and/or conservative members of their own cultures to resist what they may label as American cultural imperialism, the decadent influence of consumer capitalist values from the West that are transmitted through theEnglish language. To embrace these values at the expense of ones own language and culture is frowned upon in many conservative cultures, for example, particularlyin fundamentalist Muslim cultures which have suffered from seriously strained relations with the United States in the past six to ten years. Often, proficiency in one or more indigenous or native tongues will co-exist, mingle, and/or exist in hierarchal forms of usage with English. The acquisition of English skills does not necessarily lead to the supplanting or replacement of the native tongue with English; the choice of which language to speak is often context- and audience-dependent. For example, in some cases speakers will employ code-switching, in which two participants in a conversation, who know both English and a local vernacular language, will switch back and forth between the two tongues as a means of negotiating and navigating their relationship, in some cases even alternating back and forth between languages within the same sentence. Graddol (2000) outlines some fascinating examples, including a situation in which a young job seeker enters an office in Nairobi, Kenya, seeking employment. The vernacular language in question is Swahili; the young man commences his job inquiry with the owner of the establishment by speaking in English. The Kenyan manager of the office, however, insists on using Swahili, thus denying the young mans negotiation of the higher status associated with English. (Myers-Scotton, 1989, p. 339) Their conversation goes as follows: Young Man: Mr Muchuki has sent me to you about the job you put in the paper. Manager: Uitumabarua ya application? [Did you send a letter of application?] Young Man: Yes,I did. But he asked me to come to see you today. Manager: Ikiwaulituma barua, nenda ungojee majibu. Tutakuita ufike kwa interviewsiku itakapofika. [If youve written a letter, then go and wait for a response.We will call you for an interview when the letter arrives.] (pause) Leo sina lasuma kuliko hayo. [Today I havent anything elseto say.] Young man: Asante.Nitangoja majibu. [Thank you. I will wait for the response.] (Graddol, 2000,p. 13) The managerasserts his authority as both manager and adult in a position that commandsrespect, and he utilizes his insistence on the vernacular tongue to indirectlycommunicate this authority and demand for respect from the young man. Theyoung man is shrewd enough a native speaker of Swahili to grasp the subtext ofthe exchange, which is in essence a command to show proper deference and notwalk into a shop trying to exploit the connection with a mutual Kenyan friendby speaking English. It is not that the manager does not speak English; hedoes, but he insists on a certain element of cultural integrity by insisting onSwahili. The young man picks up on this, and therefore switches to Swahili tobid the manager farewell and tacitly submits to the shopkeepers authority byconforming to his wishes. Had the young man entered the office and spokenSwahili, he might have been granted an interview on the spot, though it ispossible the boy meant no disrespect and in fact wished to display hiseducati on by speaking English. In any case, this example shows thefascinating, multi-layered cultural and personal interchanges that go on duringcode-switching. (Note also that the manager chooses to use the English termsfor interview and application, perhaps because there is no directequivalent in Swahili, or perhaps to illustrate his own ability with English asa point of both pride and warning.) As further examplethat the finding of linguistic common ground is not the cure-all forcommunications difficulties, we now turn to the topic of how speakers interactwhen they share only one language in common, i.e., English, instead of sharingin common speaking ability in both English and their own native, vernacularlanguage. Graddol (2000) provides us with another scenario from the studies ofFirth (1996), in which international phone calls between Dutch and Syrian goodstraders were analyzed to see how the respective parties interacted in English.In some cases, where one speaker is less proficient than the other, the formerwill employ a conversational strategy termed let it pass, in which the lessproficient speaker will mask his lack of understanding of what is being said bythe other by delaying a request for clarification, in hopes that what the firstspeaker said will become understood as the conversation continues. Onehumorous exchange went as follows, in which a Dane (D) and Syrian (S) discussan order of cheese that had gone awry. S: So I told himnot to send the cheese after the blowing in the customs. We dont want theorder after the cheese is blowing. D: I see, yes. S: So I dontknow what we can do with the order now. What do you think we should do withall this blowing, Mr Hansen? D: Im not uh(pause) Blowing? What is this, too big, or what? S: No, thecheese is bad Mr Hansen. It is like fermenting in the customs cool rooms. D: Ah, its goneoff! S: Yes, itsgone off. (Graddol, 2000,p. 13) What this exampledemonstrates is that an entire skill set and mode of sub-communication developsbetween non-native speakers who do not have another frame of reference incommon, i.e., the same vernacular language, further complicating theutilization of English in business and/or commerce situations. There are alsonumerous practical considerations that affect the utilization of English,particularly in teaching it to non-ENL speakers. For example, which versionof English should be taught? Despite the extensive global use of English, itis far from a homogenous language spoken and written in the precisely samemanner in each country. English, as befitting its history, is a language ofmany diverse dialects; British English is different from American English,largely in pronunciation, accent, and certain vocabulary words, and American Englishitself is sub-divisible into any number of different sub-dialects, includingBlack/African-American English, which in its purest form is so unique inaccent, grammar, and slang that it is almost completely unintelligible to manynative English speakers, to say nothing of speakers of English as a secondlanguage (ESL). The numerouschallenges presented by English pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary may alsoserve as a roadblock for both students and teachers. The difficulty ofteaching the ambiguities of unstressed vowels, consonant phenomes, and stresstiming is considerable. English grammar and verb conjugation is extremelyirregular, requiring a considerable amount of rote memorization, instead of theapplication of logical and consistent rules, as found in Romance languages(Spanish and French rely on a consistent set of 13 verb tenses with largelyregular characteristics; English does not.) English vocabulary also requires a large amount of rote memorization, as the innumerable linguistic influences from which English draws its unusually large lexicon make it difficult to extrapolate and create words from basic linguistic structures as a speaker of Spanish can do. For example, the Spanish words pertaining to meat are all rooted in the Latin word carnivorus, whereas in English, they are not: carne = meat; carnicero = butcher; carnicerÃÆ'Â ­a = a store where meat is sold. For Spanish speakers, learning the underlying root word of a concept means the speaker should have little trouble deducing how to say related words; in English, there is no such consistency and therefore the barriers to effective learning and usage are high. On the other hand,there are inherent flaws in other major world languages, for which Englishprovides a natural compensation. One such example is Japanese, an ancient andbeautiful language rich in complexity and the capacity for subtlety and nuanceof expression, but also notorious -for those same reasons for itsinefficiency and lack of clarity when it comes to matters of politics, law,debate, and decision-making. In 1999, one of the most influential Japanesenewspapers, Asahi Shimbun issued a hotly debated call for English to beadopted as the official language of Japan, citing advantages ranging from theobvious greater Japanese ability to participate in science, internationaltrade, politics, etc. to the unusual, i.e., the newspaper asserted that theuse of English would in fact strengthen the usage of Japanese, whose linguisticweaknesses, the paper asserted, played a large part in the inefficiency of thegovernment. Quoting Yoshio Terasawa, a former director of Japans Economic Planning Agency, former member of the House of Councilors, and former president of Nomura Securities U.S. division, the newspaper delivered a stinging indictment of its own native language and recommended the usefulness of English when it came to decision-making in business and government: Japanese is fullof vague expressions, so people rarely talk in terms of black and white and itis very easy to blur responsibility. It is an everyday occurrence forgovernment ministers to spend 10 minutes answering a question in the Diet [theJapanese Parliament] without actually saying anything. But if Diet memberscould put their questions in English, it might be possible to do away with thenon-committal bureaucratic language that is too wishy-washy to translate intoEnglish. People wouldnt be able to fudge the issues any more, and not just inpolitics. (Kinomoto, 1999) The article wenton to remark, with some astonishment, that the expected outcries of culturalimperialism and the imminent demise of the celebrated individuality andindependence of the Japanese culture, were few and far between. The Japanesehave yet to make English their official language, unsurprisingly given theirhistoric national pride, but the open advocacy of the virtues of English usagewas remarkable. In the end, theutilization of English as a lingua franca second language has clear benefits.While the potential obliteration of cultural diversity worldwide, a constantsource of worry and debate, seems valid, one only need look as far as theexample of the Swahili-speaking office manager to see that indigenous speakersare finding ways for English and their own vernacular languages to co-exist,even with a bit of unease. So the challenge becomes not so much about whetheror not English is of neutral or positive benefit; it self-evidently is; butrather how to go about navigating the parallel use of English with otherlanguages across the globe, both augmenting the strengths of and compensatingfor the weaknesses of local cultures and local tongues. BIBLIOGRAPHY/ REFERENCES Fennell, Barbara. A History of English:A Sociolinguistic Approach, Blackwell Publishing, 2006. Garfield, Eugene. The English Language:The Lingua Franca Of International Science, The Scientist Magazine,1989, 3(10):12, 15 May 1989. The Triumph of English: A World Empire byOther Means, The Economist, 20 December 2001. Graddol, David. The Future of English?The British Council, 1997, 2000. Eco, U. The Search for the PerfectLanguage. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 1995. Graddol, David, Dick Leith JoanSwann. English : History, Diversity and Change London: Routledge, 1996. FBailer, R. M. Gorlach,(eds.) Englishas a World Language. Ann Arbor: Michigan University Press, 1982. Myers-Scotton, C. Code Switching withEnglish: Types of Switching, Types of Communities, World English, Vol.8, No. 3., pp. 333-46. Kachru, B.. The Alchemy of English.Pergamon Press, 1982. Trudgill, P. J. Hannah. InternationalEnglish: A Guide to Varieties of Standard English, Arnold Publishers, 1982. Kinomoto, Keusuke. Should English Be Madethe Official Language? Asahi Shimbun, 29 August 1999.

The Anglican Liturgy Essay -- Religion/Spirituality

â€Å"†¦the Prayer Book is not only a manual of public devotions, it contains the fullest statement of the teaching of the Church†. This understanding of the prayer book as the dominant treatise of Anglican belief is central to this essays argument that the Episcopal Book of Common Prayer (1979), and particularly its rite of Baptism, has fundamentally shifted Anglican thinking and liturgical practice in relation to Eucharist and ministry. We will explore this argument by first clarifying what is said in the Book of Common Prayer (1979), especially within its preface to the rite of Baptism, comparing this to the Book of Common Prayer 1662, to elicit differences and subtle nuances within the theology expressed. The consequences of these changes in relation to Eucharistic practice and invitation will then be explored, particularly the way in which confirmation is understood in the new schema. Following this, we will seek to understand the impact that this has had upon t he Anglican Church in Aotearoa, New Zealand, and Polynesia and how it has affected our Anglican Identity liturgically and ecclesiologically, especially in regards to ministry. Finally, we will offer a small critique of the liturgical understanding of Baptism as full initiation to the Eucharistic table, drawing upon biblical images and Church teaching to pose questions of whether this is appropriate. ‘Holy Baptism is full initiation by water and the Holy Spirit into Christ’s body the Church’. These few words are the initiatory comments in the Book of Common Prayer (1979) concerning the rite of Baptism and the purpose of the service. Within them lies an understanding that, while possibly implicit, in previous Prayerbooks had not been made clear, or was deliberate... ...can Style. July 10, 2010. http://anglocatholic.net/2010/07/10/communion-anglican-style/ (accessed May 14, 2012). The Church of England. The Book of Common Prayer and Administration of the Sacraments and Other Rites and Ceremonies of the Church according to the use of The Church of England. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1662. The Church of the Province of Aotearoa, New Zealand and Polynesia. A New Zealand Prayer Book/He Karakia Mihinare o Aotearoa. Auckland: Collins, 1989. The Episcopal Church. The Book of Common Prayer and Administration of the Sacraments and Other Rites and Ceremonies of the Church : together with the Psalter or Psalms of David according to the use of the Episcopal Church. New York, NY: Church Hymnal Group & Seabury Press, 1979. White, James F. Introduction to Christian Worship. 3rd Edition. Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press, 2000.

Queer Culture in Southeast Asia

When discussing queer culture In modern times, It is automatically classified as a western Idea. Queer Identities and queer struggles are associated with whiteness, as a white concept. This is one of the many causes of colonization, and how in some way it erased the history of oppressed communities. However, pre-colonization history indicates that queer culture had been developed within ancient civilizations. If we look at ancient civilizations in Latin America, societies had a different ideology of what ender was, and were open to the idea of same-sex Interactions.It Is no different of Southeast Asia. As we examine several cultures we see that queer culture has a historical context within marginalia communities. The Business people are an ethnic group of South Usualness, which is a providence in Indonesia. Their origins trace back to 2500 BCC as being ancestors to people with an Stationeries background. Gender, for this ethnic group, is seen as fluid. There are five genders within t his ethnic group: male, female, Calais, Calais and Bissau. The Business people, like other ethnic groups, believed that male-female Identities helped with the structure of the universe.Thus, ritual specialist exalted androgynous characteristics in order to communicate with spirits. The Bissau, an example of ritual specialist with androgynous characteristics, have the main purpose to give blessings to people, since it is believed that they are possessed by spirits. This ethnic group believes that the Bissau came to be when Bator Guru was sent down to create life in the planet. However, since he was not the best at organizing, so two issue were sent down to help Bator Guru create a culture that would blossom. In this sense. The Business people acknowledge that this culture was created, by two gender non-conforming aides.The Bissau influenced, is also connected to the modern- day Wars of Indonesia. Part of the connection between the Wars and the Bissau is that they are completely diffe rent from Western concepts of transgender culture. Even though I was unable to find much history of the Wars, due to geographical location, It makes sense that a connection does exist between the Wars and the Bliss. Bator Guru, a deity In several Indonesian mythologies, Is a Hindu God. This means that this notion of gender fluidity goes back to Hinduism. However, it Is soul extremely difficult to find any history of queer culture before colonization.Third-gender identities are now more evident in modern day and post-colonial times. The Philippines are an example of this, but as mentioned before, to find much history of when they came to be Is an extremely difficult task. Malaysia, and the Make Young Is another example of queer culture Is Southeast Asia. This form of traumatized once Is believed to be almost 1000 years old. Now a days, It Is Just seen as any other regular performance, and its roots from queer culture have been neglected, but it's known that the Make Young and other c ommunities in Malaysia were mainly made up of gender fluid and queer members.There's history of queer relationships in the Han Dynasty and Chou Dynasty. Emperor Ai (27 BCC-I CE) and Duke Ling of Wee (534 BCC- 403 BCC), respectively, are example of these cultures. Even though we find these forms of relationships In Ancient South Salsa and East Asia, Southeast Salsa is still hat colonized settlements had been exposed to their own queer culture and queer identities, neglects and oppresses people from those ethnic back grounds, and formulates this idea that within the LIGHT+ community, brown bodies are being saved by colonization, from their â€Å"homophobic† cultures.When thinking of modern day queer culture, and how it intersects with race, I personally think that it's important to be critical of the history of pre-colonization. Queer identities have been around for years, and they do not belong to western cultures, as we have been taught to believe.

Financial Detective Essay

Health Products: Company A is Johnson & Johnson, which is a diversified manufacturer of prescription pharmaceuticals, health and beauty aids, over-the-counter drugs, and medical devices. Company B is Pfizer Inc., which develops, manufactures, and markets patented pharmaceuticals such as Liptor and Celebrex. The most significant strategic differences between the two firms lie in their product mix and their customer focus. J&J sells most of its products directly to the consumer while Pfizer sells exclusively to doctors and institutions. Firm B has intangibles worth more than twice as much as firm A, which may reflect firm’s B’s higher investment in R&D. Firm B may also have higher intangibles due to their ownership of patents and its investments in licensing arrangements. Firm B’s gross margin is more than 12% higher than company A’s, which reflects the higher input costs for company A’s medical diagnostics and devices product segment. Company A has a far quicker inventory turnover than company B. Company B sells almost exclusively to institutions and pharmacies, which usually take longer to exhaust their supplies compared to company A, who markets its consumer products to retailers, which have a higher turnover orientations. Many of company A’s and B’s products are branded consumer products that command a price premium. However, company B’s premium is higher, reflecting the benefits of patent protection on prescription pharmaceuticals, and the additional returns needed to support company B’s large R&D efforts. Beer: Company C is Anheuser-Busch Companies Inc., which is a producer and marketer of a number of mass-market beers such as Budweiser, Michelob, and Busch. Company D is the Boston Beer Company, which is the seller of the popular Sam  Adams line of beers. Boston beer’s products are part of a microbrew. Company D’s proportion of cash and cash equivalents, which is extremely higher than company C’s show their conservative approach to its financial management. Company C shows a relatively high level of PP&E, which is consistent with its status as a major brewery. Company D has much lower net fixed assets since much of their operations are outsourced. Company C also has higher fixed assets due to its other holdings such as theme parks. Company D has higher gross profit, consistent with the premium pricing of its specialty brews versus the mass-marketing approach that was taken by company C. However, company C’s net profit margin is almost three times greater than company D’s. This may reflect the economies of scale that company C can achieve through its large size. Company D’s current assets to current liabilities ratio is three times greater than company C’s, whose current ratio is less than one. That is illustrating a careful financial approach. The commitment to financially conservative policies is shown with company D’s relatively low level of debt. Company C’s mass-market approach shows a significantly higher inventory turnover than company D’s turnover. Company D’s asset turnover is much higher due to the outsourcing. Company C’s lower turnover is consistent with a firm that owns its manufacturing facilities as well as asset-intensive theme parks. Computers: Company E is Dell Inc., a worldwide manufacturer and direct marketer of built-to-order computers and related equipment. Company F is Apple Computer  Inc., a manufacturer of a highly differentiated group of personal computers, software, and consumer electronics. This is motivated by the differentiation where company E seeks to sell a relatively high volume of lower-margin products, while company F attempts to sell an adequate volume of higher margin products. The computer and software industry is extremely volatile, which company F has experienced. Company F has extremely large holdings of cash and cash equivalents, which may represent their efforts to insure the company against any future difficulties. Company E has a higher percentage of A/P, which may reflect a higher degree of supplier financing. Company F has a lower COGS percentage, which reflects both its premium pricing and the lower cost associated with software production. Company E’s COGS is higher due to its strategy of making money on volume rather than from individual product margins. Company F has higher gross profit than company E due to its premium pricing. However, Company E’s net profit margin is almost twice as large as company F’s, which reflects their low-cost focus. Company E has low cost mail-order strategy, which leads to a lower SG&A percentage compared to company F’s who goes with a more unique retail store concept. Company F has a higher receivables turnover, which reflects the fast payments made by consumers in the form of credit card purchasers. Company E’s asset turnover is more than twice as large as company F’s. This might reflect E’s strategy as an assembler of components that have been manufactured by its supplier. Books and Music: Company G is Amazon.com, the online retailer of books and music plus a variety of other consumer goods. Company H is Barnes & Noble, Inc., the largest bookseller in the United States. The main difference between the two is that one being an established, traditional retailer and the other being a relatively new online business. Company G has more than half of its assets in cash and cash equivalents, which could be explained by its carefulness in a volatile online retail business. Company H has significantly higher proportion of inventory than company G because they have to maintain stocks of books, CDs, and videos at all of its stores, whereas company G can keep limited inventory at its distribution centers. Company G obviously has a significantly lower net fixed asset due to being an online retailer compared to having multiple stores to sell its merchandise. More than half of company G’s percentage of total liabilities and equity is comprised of long-term debt. This is most likely due to its issues of being able to raise capital after the dot-com bust environment. Company G’s beta is more than three times higher than company H’s, which shows a relatively higher risk of company G. Company G just recently started to show positive net income. Company G is able to keep a higher inventory turnover since they don’t have to sit with a lot of inventory on hand at all times compared to company H who has to store its inventory in their store, which lowers their turnover. Company H has a regular discount strategy, which could explain their lower net profit margin. Paper Products: Company I is the International Paper Company, a large, vertically integrated paper products manufacturer. Company J is the Wausau paper Paper Corporation, a small, specialty-papers operation. The distinctions between the firms arise primarily from their scale and scope. Company J carries more than twice the rate of company I, which may be the case due to its smaller size it requires the firm to carry a higher proportion of inventory in order to satisfy its demanding customers. Company I has a material lower percentage of COGS than company J, even though the raw materials are essentially the same. This illustrates the benefits of Company I having its own forests and lumber operations and their ability to negotiate lower volume-prices. Company I’s SG&A expenses are higher than J’s, which probably reflect the higher costs associated with being a large company. Hardware and Tools: Company K is Black and Decker Corporation, which manufactures and markets a broad range of power tools. Company L is Snap-on Inc., also a manufacturer of tools and other hardware, but the company is known for its high quality merchandise and for its direct sales to professional mechanics and commercial technicians. Company L has a higher percentage of receivables compared to K’s. This result occurs because K markets directly to professional end-users and provides financing, which may cause delays in repayment. On the other hand, company L primarily sells its merchandise to large retailers, which may have more regular payment schedules. Company K sells lower-priced products intended for the consumer market, whereas company L markets higher margin precision tools for the commercial customer. Therefore, Company L’s gross profit percentage is measurable  higher than K’s. Company L has a higher SG&A expenses, which corresponds to the costs associated with maintaining its large direct sales force. Company L’s payout ratio is more than four-and-a-half times greater than K’s, which may suggest its need to maintain a high rate of reinvestment to remain competitive. Retailing: Company M is Wal-Mart Stores Inc., which is well known for the breadth of its merchandise and its low price strategy. Company N is Target Corporation, which also is a discount retailer, however target appeals to its customers’ more upscale tastes. Company N has much higher receivables than M, reflecting N’s substantial credit activities. Company M has higher inventory levels relative to N, which may reflect the company’s commitment to providing a vast selection of goods. Company N has relatively lower COGS percentage, reflecting its fuller price for designer-made products. M offers low prices, which would result in a higher COGS percentage. Company M has a higher receivable turnover due to its lower use of credit sales. Newspapers: Company O is Lee Enterprises, the owner of a number of small newspapers in the Midwest. Company P is New York Times Company, and their strategic difference between the two entities is along the centralization/decentralization dimension. Company P has a centralized  strategic approach while company O has a decentralized approach. Company P, who has a centralized approach, has a significantly higher level of net fixed assets than O. K bears some of the features of a decentralized operation, since its intangibles comprise almost 77% of total assets, which suggests the existence of substantial goodwill. Company P’s level of COGS is lower than O’s, which suggests that as a larger centralized company, P may be in a better position to negotiate for volume discounts than O. Although O is decentralized, the case shows that they have slightly lower SG&A expenses than P. One example to this could be that high prices may be masking a relatively high SG&A expense. Company O’s P/E ratio is higher than P’s, which may indicate the expectations of growth for O. As the dominant player on a larger scale, P may be unable to grow through strategic acquisition. O’s net profit margin is higher, which may reflect the local monopolies, or at least less intense competition outside of the major metropolitan newspaper markets.